Glossary of Terms (6)

Absentee voting: When unable to be present at the polls on Election Day, voters can request a ballot be sent to them; it must be completed, notarized, and returned before the election.

Acquittal: Judgment that a criminal defendant has not been proven guilty beyond a reasonable doubt.

Adams, John: 1735-1826. The second president of the United States. (1797-1801)

Affirmative action: Government programs that ensure minorities are considered for hiring, admissions, and other procedures.

Allies: WW1, Great Britain; America joined in 1917.These countries fought the Central Powers. Countries fighting the Axis powers in WW 11: include the United States, France, United Kingdom, China, and the Soviet Union.

Amendment: Changes in the US. Constitution laws or bills.

American Independent Party (AIP) Taxpayers Party: Founded in 1968 by its first presidential nominee, George Wallace to end the Vietnam War. They oppose abortion.

Amicus curiae (briefs) Arguments submitted to a court by a person or group that is not a plaintiff or defendant. Latin for “friend of the court”

Anti-Federalists: The second political party. Opponents of the American Constitution at the time when the states were contemplating its adoption. They argued that the Constitution was a class-based document, that it would erode fundamental liberties, and that it would weaken the power of the states. See also Federalists.

Appeal: Attempts to get a higher court to reverse the decision of a lower court.

Appellate: Empowered to hear judicial appeals.

Appellate jurisdiction: The jurisdiction of courts that hear cases brought to them on appeal form lower courts. These courts do not review the factual record, only the legal issues involved. Compare original jurisdiction. .

Appropriation: The provision of funds for specific programs authorized by a bill reported by an appropriations committee.

Appropriations bill: An act of Congress that actually funds programs within limits established by authorization bills. Appropriations usually cover one year.

Aquino, Maria Corazon: Philippine leader who received aid by the U.S. during President (father) Bush’s Presidency.

Articles of Confederation: The first constitution of the United States, adopted by Congress in 1777 and enacted in 1781. The Articles established a national legislature, the Continental Congress, but most authority rested with the state legislatures.

Axis: Countries who were fighting allies in WWII. These include Japan, Germany, and Italy.

Baltic: Relating to Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia, the three countries on the Baltic Sea in northeast Europe bordering Russia. These countries won their independence from the Soviet Union in 1991, shortly after the Berlin Wall fell in 1989

Bay of Pigs: Part of Cuba invaded in April 1961 by CIA trained anti-Castro exiles trying to overthrow Fidel Castro. This was during the Kennedy administration.

Berlin: The capital of Germany. Formerly divided into East Germany and West Germany.

Berlin Wall: A literal wall constructed in 1961 during Khrushchev’s reign, to divide the communist block of nations from the democratic block of nations. When the Cold War ended in 1989, (this War began in 1945 when WW 11 was over), this wall came tumbling down.

Bicameral legislature: A legislature with two houses, each of which must pass identical bills in order for a measure to become law; in addition to Congress, all states, except Nebraska, have bicameral legislatures.

Bill: A proposed law introduced into either house of Congress.

Bill of Attainder: A legislative act that punishes individuals or groups for their crimes.

Bill of Rights: First 10 amendments to the Constitution, drafted in response to some of the Anti-Federalist concerns. These amendments define such basic liberties as freedom of religion, speech, and press, and offer protections against arbitrary searches by the police and being held without talking to a lawyer.

Block grants: Federal grants consolidated into broad categories and awarded to state and local governments to be used for specific purposes.

Blue-collar: Being of the working class. A manual or industrial worker. Characterized by duties calling for work clothes.

Bosnia: City in Yugoslavia where American peacekeeping troops arrived December 4, 1995, after a peace accord was negotiated in Dayton, Ohio.

Branches of the United States Government: The Legislative Branch, the Executive Branch, and the Judicial Branch. (See Legislative, Executive, Judicial)

Breyer, Steven:(D) An associate justice President Clinton appointed.

Briefs: A written documentation submitted by an attorney to support the factual and legal positions of the parties to a court case.

Brown v. Board of Education: The 1954 Supreme Court decision holding that school segregation in Topeka, Kansas, was inherently unconstitutional because it violated the Fourteenth Amendment’ guarantee of equal protection. This case marked the end of legal segregation in the United States. See also Plessy v. Ferguson.

Bureaucracy: A hierarchically organized institution in which tasks are specialized; it administers or establishes rules for government programs

Bureaucrats: People who hold positions in agencies or departments of government responsible for the administration of programs.

Bush, George H. (R) (Father) Born 1924. The 41st President of the United States, 1989-1993, 1989 forced Noreiga out of power in Panama. Iraq invaded Kuwait in 1990. Somalia’s internal divisions famine and disease stimulated U.S. troops in 1992 to help with reconstruction. Warsaw Pact now null. Berlin Wall fell. Unification of Germany began. Tiannanmen Square incident occurred. 1990 Boris Yeltsin became new Russian President.

Bush, George (R)(Son) “Dubya” Won the 2000 presidency by a small margin and was highly contested by Al Gore. The Supreme Court had to decide who the winner of this election had been.

California v. Bakke, Regents of the University: On September 24, 1965, President Johnson issued an executive order requiring federal contractors to take affirmative action to recruit, hire and promote minorities. Two years later, the Supreme Court of California held a special admissions program unlawful, enjoined petitioner from considering the race of any applicant, and ordered Bakee’s admission.

Cambodia: or Kampuchea. A country of SE Asia on the Gulf of Siam. President Johnson’s troops bombed this country and when communists invaded Cambodia in 1975 and took the ship Mayaguez, President Ford ordered an attack.

Camp David: U.S. Presidential vacation home where Israelian and Egyptian leaders agreed that Egypt would recognize Israel as a nation and Israel withdrew from territory captured in 1967. .

Capital offense: A crime punishable by death.

Carter, James: “Jimmy” (D) Born 1924. The 39^th President of the United States. 1977-1981. 1979 the second Salt treaty was signed. (Strategic Arms Limitations Treaty) A call for Israel and Egypt to negotiate to end their war so oil supply would not be cut off. Camp David meeting. Tried to diminish American dependency on OPEC. 1979 Ayatollah Khomeini assumed power in Iran. Sandinistas in Nicaragua toppled 1979 dictator Antastasio Somoza.

Case law: The law as laid down in cases that have been decided in the decisions of the courts.

Castro, Fidel: Cuban leader who in 1959 overthrew Dictator Fulgencio Bastista. This began a revolution. Eisenhower ended diplomatic relations at this time with Cuba. Castro strengthened his relationship with the Soviet Union.

Categorical grants: Federal aid to state and local governments that is targeted to achieve some specific federal goal.

Caucus: A meeting of like-minded individuals; used in legislatures to decide party policy on issues and as a substitute for primaries to select party delegates to district and state conventions.

Census: A count of all persons in the United States take every 10 years, the constitutional purpose of which is to determine the number of representatives for each state.

Central Powers: Germany, Austria-Hungary and Turkey during World War 1.

Chiang Kai-Shek: Chinese Nationalist leader replaced by Chinese Communist dictator Mao Tse-tung in 1949 who created the People’s Republic of China (PRC). Chiang fled to Formosa (Taiwan) in 1950 where he became president of the Republic of China (ROC). See also Mao Tse-tung and Republic of China). (Note: Chiang is the last name)

Civil jury: A jury of 12 members or less to determine liability for harm that has been done or if harm can be avoided. Preponderance of the evidence (majority decision) is needed. The award is of compensation for damage, injunction or something else of value.

Civil liberties: The freedoms of speech, press, religion, and petition, as well as the freedom from unjust arrest or prosecution.

Civil rights: The rights of citizens to vote, to receive equal treatment before the law, and to share in public facilities.

Civil service: Government employment system where selection and promotion are based on merit rather than political position or influence.

Civil War: A war between factions or regions of the same country. In the case of the United States Colonies, it was the war between the Union and the Confederacy from 1861-1865.

Class action suit: A lawsuit filed by one or more people on behalf of themselves.

Clinton, William J. (D): Born 1946. The 42^nd President of the United States. 1992-2000. The end of 1992, famine and violence of Somalia were the focus of this president. In 1993, additional relief troops were sent to Somalia. Bosnia became independent from Yugoslavia in 1991. Bosnian Serbs and Croatians began ethnic cleansing in 1992. Muslims were cut of from receiving aid from the UN. 1995 a cease-fire agreement was reached to begin peace negotiations. The bloodshed ended with the Dayton Peace Accords in Ohio. 1991 the president of Haiti was overthrown. Bush did not allow their refuge to the U.S. Clinton did. Clinton also allowed them to be taken to Cuba and other Caribbean countries to find asylum. The rebels were taken by force and Jean-Bertrand Aristide, the legitimate president, was reinstated. A nuclear plant was built in N. Korea in exchange for their ceasing construction of an old style nuclear power plant. Start 1 and Start 11 (Strategic Arms Reduction) treaty to reduce U.S. and Russian nuclear arsenals2/3 from their Cold War heights.

Closed primary: See primary.

Cold War: The struggle from 1945-1989 of the U.S. and Western Europe against the Soviet Union and its Eastern European allies. It involved confrontations but no actual “hot” warfare.

Committees: There are four kinds of committees: Standing/permanent, Select/ad hoc, Joint and Conference.

Common law: The legal system that originated in England and is now in use in the United States. It is based on judicial decisions rather than legislative action.

Competive district: Election is uncertain. No particular candidate is popular. A lot of diversity among voters.

Containment: U.S. policy that began in 1947 and continued throughout the Cold War. Its aim was to contain communism within its existing limits. This was done through military means, as in Korea and Vietnam, or through technical and economic assistance to noncommunist countries. See also Cold War.

Concurring opinion: An opinion, which agrees with the decision of the court, but can offer further comment.

Concurrent powers: Those constitutional powers that both national and state governments can exercise, such as taxation.

Congressional district: (CD) A position in the U.S. House of Representatives. (See District)

Conference committees: Congressional committees formed when the Senate and the House pass a particular bill in different forms. Party leadership appoints members from each house who iron out the differences and report back a single bill. See also standing committees, and joint committees.

Congress: The national legislative body. The U.S. legislature consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives. There are 100 members of the Senate and 435 members of the House. Other names are, congressman, congressperson, and congresswoman.

Congressional budget office: Created as part of the Budget Reform Act of 1974, the CBO assists Congress by providing economic assessments and budget analyses.

Congressional research service: Located in the Library of Congress, the CRS provides research and policy analysis for members of Congress.

Congressional power concerning foreign policy: (1). To declare war. (2). Activate the armed forces. (3). Control of the purse.

Constitution: A nation’s basic law. It creates political institutions, assigns or divides powers in government, and often provides certain guarantees to citizens. Constitutions can be both written and unwritten. (See also U.S. Constitution).

Constitutionalism: The belief that the basic rules by which we are governed should be in a written form.

Containment: Policy of the United States adopted after World War 11 to keep the Soviet Union within a defined set of geographical boundaries with force if necessary.

Contras: See Iran- Contra affair.

Conviction: A judgment of guilt against a criminal defendant.

Counsel: Legal advice; a term used to refer to lawyers in a case.

Court: Government entity authorized to resolve legal disputes. Judges sometimes use "court" to refer to themselves in the third person, as in "the court has read the briefs."

Court packing: An act F.D. Roosevelt created in order to pack the court in his favor. He wanted the ability to be able to appoint a new justice, up to a maximum of six, for every justice who had at least 10 years service and was 70 years of age or older. His plan drew immediate criticism from all political directions. When the chief sponsor of the bill, Joseph Robinson of Arkansas died, so did the bill.

Criminal Jury: A jury of 12 members to determine if the government” should punish the accused. Guilt must be beyond a reasonable doubt (unanimous). Jury decides either conviction, acquittal, or hung jury.

Crossover voter: An individual who votes for a different party than he/she has voted for in the past. (See split ticket, loyal party, and straight ticket voter)

Cross- pressures: A situation where an individual is faced with conflicting demands because of multiple group membership.

Cuban Missile Crisis: A crisis started when the Soviet Union started installing nuclear weapons in Cuba. The American president was John F. Kennedy. He ordered the removal of the missiles or there would be a nuclear war.

Culture: The shared beliefs, traditions, and myths of a group of people.

Damages: Money paid by defendants to successful plaintiffs in civil cases to compensate the plaintiffs for their injuries.

Dayton: City in Ohio where the Peace Accord talks were held to stop the bloodshed in Bosnia.

Decision rule: The specific method by which electoral decisions are determined such as majority, plurality and proportional representation rule.

Declaration of Independence: The document written in 1776 by Thomas Jefferson, that set forth the institutional structure of the U.S. government and the task this institution performs. It replaced the Articles of Confederation. See also constitution.

Decline to state: A person refusing, or declining, to identify himself with a particular party.

Defendant: In a civil suit, the person complained against; in a criminal case, the person accused of the crime.

Deficiency payments: Farm aid program that pays farmers the difference between the market price and a government-set price.

De facto: Latin phrase meaning by the fact of, in fact, whether right or not. It is used in place of “actual.”

De jure: Latin meaning “Lawful.” Distinguished from De Facto meaning “actual.”

De jure segregation: See De Jure. .

Democratic system: A political system in which most of the adult citizens are eligible to participate in choosing their rulers and policies at regular intervals, and in which there a re competing candidates or viewpoints from which to choose.

Democratic caucus: All Democrats in a legislative body may attend the party meeting or caucus

Democratic Party: Political affiliation that originated with the Anti-Federalists and Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans. They were usually referred to by their nickname, Republicans.

Democracy: A government by the people. See Direct democracy, Face to face, democracy by petition, electronic democracy also see indirect democracy.)

Democracy by petition: One of three types of direct democracy used only at state and local levels of government. Three ways this can be practiced are (1) Initiative, (2) Referendum (3) Recall. See also direct initiative.

Détente: A policy of relaxing tensions between nations, most usually used in referring to the United States and the Soviet Union, by attempting to cooperate in as many areas as possible.

Dictator/Dictatorship: A ruling power that has absolute authority. Especially a tyrant. One who dictates.

Direct democracy: A system in which all eligible citizens take part personally in making policy decisions by voting for leaders and representatives. See also representative democracy.

Direct Initiative: See initiative. A petition introduced by voters for a proposed law. If the petition has the minimum number of signatures required, usually between 2-15% of the previous elections voters, the initiative must be on the next election ballot.

Direct primary: See primary. An election held to select the party’s candidates for the general election. Primaries can be open to all voters or closed, permitting only those registered to a particular party to vote; if the primary is open and people can vote for candidates in any party, it is called a blanket primary.

District: A geographical area in a state with about 600,000 citizens. (See Safe district)

District courts: The 91 federal entities that have original jurisdiction. They are the only federal courts in which no trials are held and in which juries may sit on a panel.

DMZ: Demilitarized Zone. Line on the 38^th parallel that marks the border of North Korea (Communism) and South Korea (Democracy)<

Docket: The agenda of cases to be considered by a court.

Domino Theory: An effect produced when one event sets off a chain of similar events. It originated with Harry Truman. His fear was if one country fell to communism, many others would fall. (See also Containment, Truman Doctrine, Marshall Plan, Greece and Turkey.

Dred Scott v. Sanford: The 1857 Supreme Court decision ruling that a slave who had escaped to a free state enjoyed no rights as a citizen and that Congress had no authority to ban slavery in the territories.

East Bloc: A term for communist nations.

Education for All Handicapped Children Act: Federal law that requires local schools to provide appropriate educational opportunities for children with handicaps; now called Individuals With Disabilities.

Eisenhower, Dwight D ® 1890-1969, the 34^th President of the United States from 1953-1961. (see Eisenhower doctrine) Ho Chi Minh formed the League for the Independence of Vietnam to oust the French from Vietnam. Joseph Stalin died in 1953. Russian expansion had to be restrained in countries like Iran, Iraq, Kuwait and Saudi Arabia. Guatemala began to import Soviet weapons. The U.S. helped to overthrow the government of President Jacobo Arbenz Guzman in 1954. 1959 Fidel Castro overthrew Dictator Fulgencio Batista. The U.S ended diplomatic relations with Cuba.

Elections: See Primary and general election.

Electoral college: The system we use to elect the president, in which each state has a number of electors equal to its representation in Congress.

Electoral votes: A need of 27o electoral votes is needed for a presidential winner.

Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA): The major vehicle for federal funding of education at the local level; aimed mainly at low-income areas. In 1965, this act opened up a new relationship between the national government and education. Before this, federal intervention was isolated and related to the achievement of some narrow goal rather than broad-based general aid. Two major problems were associated with this aid. Schools in the south did not want to accept aid that would require them to integrate, while Protestant groups as well as professional education associations wanted aid for public schools only. Roman Catholics wanted aid that also went to parochial schools. This aid was for the student not the school, by passing all the problems associated with it.

Elites: Small, select groups with shared values and goals that dominate the making of political decisions.

El Salvador: A country in Central America. This country was used during the Reagan administration in support of the Contra’s.

Endorsement: Recommendation

Establishment clause: Prohibits interaction of church and state.

Executive branch: On a Federal level: President and Vice President. On a State Level, the Governor of the state. On a County level: Board of Supervisors, on a City Level: Mayor and /or City Council. On a Special District Level: The Governing Board of District or Board of Supervisors.

Exclusionary rule: The rule that evidence, no matter how incriminating, cannot be introduced into trial if it was not constitutionally obtained. The rule prohibits use of evidence obtained through unreasonable search and seizure. .

Executive agreements: International agreements reached by the president with other countries that do not require the approval of the Senate.

Executive office of the President (EOP): Cluster of staff agencies created in 1939 to help the president in the formulation, evaluation, coordination, and monitoring of government policy.

Executive order: A presidential directive implementing provisions of a statute or treaty.

Executive privilege: Assertion by the president that some matters are of such national importance that information regarding them can be withheld from Congress or the courts.

Ex post facto law: A law that makes an action criminal even though the action was legal at the time it was done, or increases the penalty for a crime after it has been committed.

Ex post veto: Conference committee method of undoing changes to congressional bills or resolutions.

Federal government: A government in which at least two levels independently have political power over their residence.

Federalists: Those who supported the adoption of the new Constitution before its ratification; also the name of the political party that emerged in the 1790’s; its leaders were John Adams and Alexander Hamilton.

Federalist Papers: A collection of eighty-five articles written by Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and James Madison under the name “Publius” to defend the Constitution in detail. Collectively, these papers are second only to the U.S. Constitution in characterizing the framers’ intents.

Federal Jurisdiction: Jurisdiction given to federal courts in cases involving the interpretation and application of the U.S. Constitution, acts of Congress, and treaties.

Federal Tax Court: Established by Congress in 1924 under Article I of the Constitution, the U.S. Tax Court makes decisions regarding controversies between taxpayers and the Internal Revenue Service. These decisions involve underpayment of federal income, gifts, and estate taxes. These decisions may be appealed to the Federal Court of Appeals and are subject to review by the U.S. Supreme Court on writs of certiorari. The President appoints the 19-tax court judges for a term of 15 years.

Felony: A crime carrying a penalty of more than a year in prison.

Filibuster: A strategy unique to the Senate whereby opponents of a piece of legislation try to talk it to death, based on the tradition of unlimited debate. Today, sixty members present and voting can halt a filibuster. It can by stopped by invoking stopped by invoking cloture.

Ford, Gerald ®: 1913- The 38^th President of the United States 1974-1977. 1975 Communists invaded Cambodia took the American ship Mayaguez. We attacked to rescue the ship with 39 crewmembers. (Born Leslie King, Jr. was adopted)

Foreign policy: Relating to or dealing with other nations. Involved with other nations. The three objectives in foreign policy are: (1). To preserve and enhance national security. (2). To promote national prosperity. (3). To advance ideological goals by spreading democracy.

Founding Fathers: The writers of the Constitution during the summer of 1787. Also called Framers.

Framers: See Founding Fathers.

Franchise: The right to vote.

Free exercise clause: Allows freedom to practice religion, but prohibits religious activity that is a crime.

Free ride: The person who can run for one office while continuing service in the other.

General Accounting Office (GAO): An agency responsible to Congress for auditing and investigating the expenditures of government agencies.

General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT): Is primarily concerned with establishing freer trade among nations and removing unfair competition. It does this by extending “most favored nation: rights to members and providing a mechanism for settling disputes.

General Election: Decides the winner who becomes elected delegate for district or president following the primary election. (See Primary Election)

General Revenue Sharing (GRS): See Revenue Sharing. Federal grants to state and local governments with no specifications as to how the money was to be spent; programs ended in Fiscal Year 1988.

General Schedule: The classification system used in civil service with grades ranging from 1-18.

Germane: Debate that is pertinent; bearing on the subject.

Gerrymander: The drawing of district boundaries to achieve a partisan advantage.

Gideon v. Wainwright: Ruling that one has the right to an attorney even if he is unable to pay for it. The criminal Gideon was too poor to hire a defense attorney. This is part of the Sixth Amendment-right to counsel.

Gingsburg, Ruth Bader (D): One of the eight associate justices on the U.S. Supreme Court. She is the second woman to be appointed to the court by W. Clinton.

Glasnost: A Russian term introduced by Mikhail Gorbachev referring to open political debate and criticism.

Government: An institution established by a society to make policies and enforce laws.

Gorbachev, Mikhail: Soviet Union President during Reagan’s administration. See glasnost and perestroika.

GOTV: Get out the vote

Grand jury: A body of citizens who listen to evidence of criminal allegations, which are presented by the government, and determines whether there is probable cause to believe the offense was committed. As it is used in federal criminal cases, "the government" refers to the lawyers of the U.S. attorney's office who are prosecuting the case.

Great Depression: Began in 1929 with the Stock Market Crash. After President F.D. Roosevelt’s election in 1932, he proposed the New Deal, which were programs to try to fix the economic condition of the United States.

Green Party: (G) Part of a global environmental and social justice movement founded in 1973. In 1996 and again in 2000 its first U.S. Presidential nominee was consumer advocate Ralph Nader.

Grenada: A country in the Windward Island of the West Indies. Cuba backed this country during the Reagan administration when we aided the Contras of Nicaragua.

Group of Seven (G-7): The major economic democracies of the United States, Japan, Canada, United Kingdom, France, Germany, and Italy, who have become the major decision makers concerning the world economy. Economic summits among the leaders of these countries have been held for the past 20 years.

Guaranteed Student Loan (GSL): A program providing low-interest loans to college students from middle and low-income families.

Guatemala: A country in Central America. Eisenhower administration helped to overthrow the Guatemalan government of President Jacobo Arbenz Guzman in 19543

Gulf of Tonkin Resolution: A Gulf off the coast of Vietnam. Based on a request from President Johnson in August 1964 after American destroyers were allegedly attacked by Communist forces off the coast of Vietnam, this resolution gave the executive the power to protect and defend American service personnel with whatever force was necessary. ; The joint resolution was adopted unanimously in the House and with only two dissenting votes in the Senate This was used as the basis for large-scale American military involvement in Vietnam.

Habeas corpus: A court order requiring a warden or police officer to bring a prisoner before a judge and explain the reason for his or her detention

Haiti: A country of the West Indies. Jean-Bertrand Aristide was removed by a military coup in 1991 after-which refugees left Haiti for America. During President (father) Bush’s administration, they were not allowed to enter the U.S. During Clinton’s administration they were. .

Hiroshima: A city in Japan where the U.S. dropped the atomic bomb in 1945. This caused an end to WW11. (See Nagasaki)

Hitler, Adolph: 1889-1945. Austrian born German Nazi dictator.

Ho Chi Minh: Communist leader of North Vietnam. His group formed the league for the independence of Vietnam to rid themselves of the French..

House Rules Committee: An institution unique to the House of Representatives that reviews all (except revenue, budget, and appropriations bills) coming from a House committee before they go to the full House.

House Ways and Means Committee: The House of Representatives committee that, along with the Senate Finance Committee, writes the tax codes, subject to the approval of Congress as a whole.

Hussein, Saddam: 1937-. Leader of Iraq when Iraq attacked Kuwait in 1990.

Impeachment: The political equivalent of an indictment in criminal law, prescribed by the Constitution. The House of Representatives may impeach the president by a majority vote for “Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors.:

Incumbent: Currently holding a specified office.

Independent: A candidate not affiliated with any particular party; this person is independent in his platform views from other political parties.

Independent agencies: bureaucratic agencies established outside the major departments of government and only marginally controlled by the president.

Independent regulatory commissions: Commissions, organized to be partially independent of direct presidential control, designed to regulate some important aspects of business and the economy.

Indictment: The formal charge issued by a grand jury stating that there is enough evidence that the defendant committed the crime to justify having a trial; it is used primarily for felonies.

Indirect Democracy: Or Representative Democracy. This is the type of democracy the United States Government is. Citizens to make laws for them vote a representative. (See Branches and Democracy)

Information: A charge or charges that issued by a prosecutor to accuse a person of a crime.

Injunction: An order of the court prohibiting (or compelling) the performance of a specific act to prevent irreparable damage or injury.

Initiative: An electoral procedure in which citizens can propose legislation by obtaining the required number of signatures on a petition.

Institutions of the United States Government: There are three Branches and Five levels to each branch. (See Branch, and Level)

International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank): Makes loans to developing countries. It was established in 1946 and today has about 150 members.

Internationalism: The belief that the greatest possible cooperation between nations in trade, culture, education, and government is the best way to build peace. ( For contrast, see Isolationism and Nationalism)

International Monetary Fund: IMF attempts to stabilize exchange rates and provides liquidity to countries with payment problems. It was established in 1946 and today has about 150 members.

Interest groups: Another name is Pressure groups. A group acting together for common interest or purpose. An organization trying to influence what government does to help its members.

Iraq: A country of South West Asia. During the Bush (father) administration, Saddam Hussein, leader of Iraq, invaded and occupied the small nation of Kuwait. He also threatened to take Saudi-Arabia. Bush sent 100,000 troops to Saudi Arabia and had the United Nations Security Council order Iraq to leave Kuwait. This action created a boost to Bush’s popularity at that moment.

Iran: Formerly Persia. A country of South West Asia. Language: Indo-European. During the Carter administration, diplomacy was extended to release American hostages. This would not have its fullest realization until the day Reagan was sworn in as President of the United States.

Iran-Contra affair: Scandal affecting Reagan and Bush administrations for having sold arms to a terrorist state, Iran, in exchange for hostages, and using the profits to fund the Contras in Nicaragua because Congress had stopped appropriations for their support This arrangement was for Iran to release hostages in Lebanon in place of the arms deal.(see Boland Amendment)

Iron triangles: Relationships that exist among committees and subcommittees of Congress, the offices and bureaus of the executive branch, and relevant interest groups.

Isolationism: A national policy of abstaining from political or economic entanglements with other countries. (For contrast, see Internationalism and Nationalism)

Israel: A country of South West Asia on the East Mediterranean the capital being Jerusalem. This modern country was formerly known as Palestine. Israel is usually in constant friction with neighboring nations because of land claims. During the Truman presidency, the United States supported Israel, which caused resentment among Arab neighbors. In the Carter administration, the middle eastern oil supply was threatened because of war in the Middle East. . Peace talks between Egypt and Israel at Camp David resulted in the compromise of Egypt recognizing Israel as a separate country.

Jefferson, Thomas: Anti-Federalist: (D-R) 1743-1826. The third President of the United States. 1801-1809..

Johnson, Andrew: (Anti-Federalist) (D-R) 1808-11875. The 17^th President of the United States. 1865-1869.. He was the Vice President of Abraham Lincoln. When Lincoln was assassinated in 1865, Johnson became president. The Civil War ended during his presidency.

Johnson, Lyndon B: (D)) ( Great Society) 1908-1973. the 36^th President of the United States. 1963-1969. Pro Communist’s from the Soviet Union and China provided support to the North Vietnamese. America sent troops to establish a firm government under Ngo Dinh Diem in South Vietnam. Nixon secretly bombed Cambodia. (See also Gulf of Tonkin and Vietnam). U.S. under the legislation of Congress, brought an end to the Viet Nam War.

Joint committees: Committees composed of equal numbers of representatives and senators that consider matters of mutual concern to both houses.

Judge: Government official with authority to decide lawsuits brought before courts. Other judicial officers in the U.S. courts system are Supreme Court justices.

Judicial committees: Congressional committees on a few subject-matter areas with membership drawn form both houses. See also standing committees, and conference committees.

Judicial Branch of Government: On a Federal Level: The U.S. Supreme Court. On a State Level: The State Supreme Court. On a County Level: The Superior Court. On a City Level: The Municipal Court (Superior and Municipal are state courts) On a Special District Level: Administrators make decisions, which may be appealed to Superior Court.

Judicial opinion: See Judicial opinion.

Judicial review: The power of the courts to determine whether acts of Congress, and by implication the executive, are in accord with the U.S. Constitution. Judicial review was established by John Marshall and his associates in Marbury v. Madison.

Judgment: The official decision of a court finally determining the respective rights and claims of the parties under civil law.

Jurisdiction: See Federal jurisdiction. (1) The legal authority of a court to hear and decide a case. Concurrent jurisdiction exists when two courts have simultaneous responsibility for the same case. (2) The geographic area over which the court has authority to decide cases.

Jury: Persons selected according to law and sworn to inquire into and declare a verdict on matters of fact.

Kennedy, John F:.(D) (New Frontier) 1917-1963. The 35^th President of the United States, 1961-1963, assassinated. The New Frontier. The first Catholic elected President. It was Kennedy who introduced Civil Rights legislation to Congress. President during the Cuban Missile Crisis when Khrushchev loaded Cuba with nuclear technology. Secretly invaded the Bay of Pigs. He ordered a naval blockade around Cuba to prevent Soviet ships from bringing missiles to Cuba. (See Cuban Missile Crisis)

Khomeni, Ayatollah Ruhollah: 1900-1989. Iranian Shiite leader. His countrymen seized the embassy in Teheran, demanding surrender of the Shah in exchange for American hostages during the Carter administration.

Korea: A peninsula and former country of Eastern Asia between the Yellow Sea and the Sea of Japan. Now two countries, North Korea and South Korea.

Korean War: This was one of the two hot wars America was involved in after WWII in 1941. June 25, 1950 war between North and South Korea was intervened by the Truman administration. It was thought this war was a threat to the free world. The United Nations mandated the expulsion of North Korea out of South Korea. North Korea is Communist. South Korea is democratic. (See also DMZ, and Containment).

Kosovo: A province of Serbia. Yugoslavia. has two republics. One is Serbia and the other Montenegro Serbia is the dominant republic. Kosovo wants to be independent from Yugoslavia. These people are ethnic Albanians. The Serbs who make up 10 percent of the population of Kosovo rule the ethnic Albanians who make up 90 percent of the population.

Kuwait: A country of N.E. Arabia at the head of the Persian Gulf.

Khrushchev, Nikita: (1894-1971) Soviet politician. Replaced Joseph Stalin in 1953 when Stalin died. (See glasnost and perestroika).

Law: A bill that has been passed by both houses of Congress and signed by the president or, if vetoed, re-passed by two-thirds votes in both houses of Congress.

Lawsuit: A legal action started by a plaintiff against a defendant based on a complaint that the defendant failed to perform a legal duty, resulting in harm to the plaintiff.

League of Nations: An organization created after WW1, during the Wilson administration, designed to be a permanent peacetime international security organization. It failed to prevent WWII.

Legislative branch: Consists on a federal level U.S. Senate and House of Representatives. on a state level: state senate and state assembly, on a county level: board of supervisors, on a city level: city council. on a special district level: May be the county board of supervisors: for example, L.A. Community College Board of Trustees.

Legislative veto: Congressional provision allowing Congress or a committee of Congress to reject by majority vote a presidential or national agency act or regulation; ruled unconstitutional in 1983 by the Supreme Court in INS v Chadha.

Levels of the United States Government: There are five levels of the United States Government. The federal, the state, the county, the city, also known as municipal, and the special district. (See Legislative, Judicial, Executive)

Libel: Publishing false or malicious statements that damage someone’s reputation.

Libertarian Party (L): Founded for the 1972 election to advocate individual freedom and liberties through the elimination of most laws and government powers. Would eliminate federal taxes and tariffs. Nominated financial analyst Harry Browne for president in 1996.

Lincoln, Abraham: (R) 1809-1865. The 16^th President of the United States. Assassinated. 1861-1865. Lincoln was the Incumbent president during the Civil War.

Lobbying: The act of trying to influence governmental policy decisions and/or legislation.

Lobbyists: See Lobbying

Logrolling: The trading of votes among lawmakers.

Loyal party voter: People who support their party by voting for their party’s candidate. (See Straight ticket, split ticket and cross over voter.)

Madison, James: 1751-1836. The fourth president of the U.S. 1809-1817. The principle author of the Constitution of the United States. His quote: “If men were angels, no government would be necessary”.

Majority: Prominent, greater in significance, rank or extent. This party is most likely to win an election.

Major party: Prominent political groups such as Democratic and Republican.

Majority leader (Senate/House): The principle partisan ally of the Speaker of the House. The majority leader is responsible for scheduling bills, influencing committee assignments, and rounding up votes in behalf of the party’s legislative positions.

Majority rule: The percentage that determines a winner in an election; a simple majority is where the winner needs 50 percent plus one of the votes cast; an absolute majority requires 50 percent plus one of those eligible to vote to win.

Mandamus, writ of: A judicial order requiring a public official, an individual, or a corporation to perform some official duty. Example: Marbury sued Madison.

Mao Tse-tung: Chinese Communist dictator who took over China in 1949 making it the People’s Republic of China. (PCR) (See People’s Republic of China).(Note: Mao is the last name)

Mapp v. Ohio: The 1911 Supreme Court decision ruling that the Fourth Amendments protection against unreasonable searches and seizures must be extended to the states as well as the federal government. See also exclusionary rule.

Marbury v. Madison: The 1803 case in which Chief Justice John Marshall and his associates first asserted the right of the Supreme Court to determine the meaning of the American Constitution. The decision established the Court’s power of judicial review over acts of Congress, in this case the Judiciary Act of 1789.

Marshall John (F): Supreme Court justice. Perhaps his most important decision was Marbury v. Madison (1803), in which he laid down the concept of “judicial review” –namely, that federal courts had the final say in deciding whether congressional legislation was constitutional.

Marshall Plan: A program of U.S. support to aid the economic recovery of European nations following World War II. in 1947. See containment, and Truman Plan.

Marshall, Thurgood: As legal counsel for the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), he guided the litigation that destroyed the legal underpinnings of Jim Crow segregation. As an associate justice of the Supreme Court, the nation’s first black justice, he constructed a distinctive jurisprudence marked by uncompromising liberalism, unusual attentiveness to practical considerations beyond the formalities of law, and an indefatigable willingness to dissent.

Marxist-Leninist: Marxism: Principles and social policies advocated by Karl Marx a German Socialist writer (1818-1883) on which Communism is based. Lenin: 1870-1924. The Russian revolutionary and the first head f the USSR. (1917-1924)

Mayaguez: The American merchant ship in 1975, captured by Communists in the Gulf of Siam. President Ford ordered an attack to rescue the ship and its 39-crew members.

McCulloch v. Maryland: An 1819 Supreme Court decision that established the supremacy of the national government over state governments. In deciding this case, Chief Justice John Marshall and his colleagues held that Congress had certain implied powers in addition to the enumerated powers found in the Constitution.

Media: The means of disseminating information; includes books, magazines, newspapers, radio, and television.

Medically indigent adults: Governmental classification of those unable to provide financially for their own medical care.

Medicare/Medicaid: Federal insurance program to provide medical care for the aged (Medicare) and aid to states with medical care for the poor (Medicaid)

Milosevic, Slobodan: Communist President of Yugoslavia since 1989 when the Cold War ended. He is compared with Hitler because of his disregard for human life. Since May 1999 the International War Crimes Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia released the following counts of indictment against Milosevic: (1) Deportation: Crimes against humanity. (2). Murder: Crimes against humanity. (3). Persecutions on political, racial, and religious grounds: Crimes against humanity. (4). Murder: War Crimes.

Minor: Party least likely to win an election

Minority party(ies): There are six minority parties in California. These are the Reform Party (Rfm) founded by Ross Perot. The party nominated Perot in 1996 and Pat Buchanan in 2000. The Green Party (G) founded by social justice movements in 1973. Nominated Ralph Nader for president in 1996. The American Independent Party (AIP) founded in 1968 by George Wallace. The Libertarian Party (L) founded in 1972 for individual freedom and liberties by eliminating most laws, government powers, taxes and tariffs. The Natural Law Party (NL) founded in 1992 to apply the principles of meditation to solve social ills. Peace and Freedom Party (PF) founded for the 1968 election by active farm workers, civil rights and anti-Vietnam War movement groups. (See each group by individual name)

Minority leader: The principal leader of the minority party in the House of Representatives or in the Senate.

Miranda v. Arizona: The 1966 Supreme Court decision that sets guidelines for police questioning of accused persons to protect them against self-incrimination and to protect their right to counsel.

Misdemeanor: Usually a petty offense, a less serious crime than a felony, punishable by less than a year of confinement.

Missouri Plan: A method of selecting judges that originated in the state of Missouri and subsequently was adopted by other U.S. jurisdictions. It involves the creating a nominating commission that screens judicial candidates and submits to these to the appointing authority chosen from the list. Anyone so chosen assumes the judgeship for a probationary period. When this period is completed, the judge stands for popular election for a much longer term, not competing against other candidates but basing his candidacy on previous judgments. Under the Missouri Plan, voters decide whether or not to retain the judge in office.

Mistrial: An invalid trial, caused by fundamental error. When a mistrial is declared, the trial must start again from the selection of the jury.

Monarch: A hereditary sovereign, such as a king or queen. One that presides over or rules.

Monarchy: Government ruled by a monarch. A state ruled or headed by a monarch.

Mussolini: The Italian leader of Italy who signed Tripartite Act in 1940 with Japan and Germany. (See Tripartite Act).

Multimember districts (MMDs): Electoral districts from which more than one person is elected.

Multiple referral: Proposed legislation, which because of its subject matter is sent to more than one committee for consideration.

Mutually assured destruction (MAD): The theory that possession of sufficient retaliatory weapons by a superpower, (enough firepower would remain to destroy the aggressor in the event of a first attack) is sufficient to create a system of stable deterrence.

Nagasaki: A city in Japan where the U.S. dropped the atomic bomb in 1945, which ended WW II. (See Hiroshima)

Nationalism: Devotion to the interest or culture of a particular nation. Aspirations for national independence. (For contrast, see Internationalism and Isolationism)

National party conventions: Meeting of delegates from each state which, since 1830, political parties select their presidential and vice-presidential nominees.

NATO: The North Atlantic Treaty Organization. This organization was created after 1945 when the Cold War began. It fights against the spread of Communism. It now includes Britain, France, Canada, Denmark, Germany, Belgium, Iceland, Italy, Norway, The Netherlands, Luxembourg, Portugal, Greece and Turkey and the United States, the later joining in 1949. In 1999 Poland, Czech Republic and Hungary were added. These had formerly been part of the Warsaw Pact.

Natural Law Party (NL): Founded for the 1992 election to apply the principles of the meditation techniques of the Marharishi Mahesh Yogi to solve social problems.

Nazi: A member of the fascist political party that held power (1933-1945) in Germany under Adolph Hitler.

Necessary and proper clause: The congressional power mentioned in art. 1, sec. 8 of the Constitution that provides for congressional action necessary and proper to effect the other powers of Congress. Sometimes called the Elastic Clause because of its discretionary nature.

New Deal: Programs Franklin Delano Roosevelt proposed to try to fix the economic situation of the United States after the Stock Market crash.

New Freedom: The slogan of Woodrow Wilson. In 1917, American troops were sent to Europe and the U.S. became involved in WW1.

Nicaragua: A country that became infamous to American history when in 1979 Anastasio Somoza’s government was toppled by Marxist Sandinistas. The Reagan administration covertly aided the Contras of Nicaragua to oppose this take over. The United States openly opposed the Cuban-backed Grenada government, promising anti-Communist “freedom fighters” against The Sandinista Government of Nicaragua. (See Grenada)

Nixon, Richard: (R) 1913-1994 The 37^th president of the United States 1969-1974. Vietcong unwilling to negotiate. Nixon gradually reduced U.S. forces to S. Vietnam. In 1970, thousands were sent to Cambodia, hoping to destroy the enemy base. 1972 the U.S. and Soviet Union signed the first SALT (Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty). 1973 America exited the war.

Ngo Dinh Diem: Leader of South Viet Nam and leader America tried to aid during Viet Nam War.

Nolo contendere: No contest-has the same effect as a plea of guilty, as far as the criminal sentence is concerned, but may not be considered as an admission of guilt for any other purpose.

Nomination: Party choice of a candidate member for a certain race.

Non-decision: Where government refrains from considering a particular problem; the decision not to consider problems is itself a decision, but the concept is useful nonetheless

Nongermane amendment: Amendments to bills the subjects of which are different from the legislation to which they are attached; prohibited by the rules in the House but a frequent occurrence in the Senate.

Non-partisan: no party affiliation during an election.

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO): A mutual defense agreement among major European nations and the United States to defend the North Atlantic area against aggression.

Noreiga, Manuel: Panama leader Bush (father) forced out of power.

O’Connor, Sandra (R): One of the eight associate justices on the U.S. Supreme court. She is the first woman on the Supreme Court.

Office of management and budget (OMB): the presidential agency that formulates the budget as well as monitoring the use of funds by other agencies of government; has recently been given the task of reviewing government regulations to coincide with budgetary policy.

Office of technology assessment: A congressional agency that assists Congress in the study of scientific and technological ideas.

Off-year election: The general election that takes place in the 2-year interval between presidential elections.

OPEC: (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries): The organization of most Third World oil-producing nations

Open primary: See primary.

Open rule: In the House of Representatives, an order that allows amendments to the bill under consideration.

Open seat: A seat with no incumbent.

Opinion (judicial): The written statement giving reasons for the decision in a particular case and explaining how broadly the decision applies

Original jurisdiction: The authority of courts that hear a case first, usually in a trial. These are the courts that determine the facts about a case. Compare appellate jurisdiction.

Palestine: A region of southwest Asia on the eastern Mediterranean shore, roughly coextensive with modern Israel and the West Bank. (See Israel)

Panama: Central American country where the U.S. forced Manuel Noreiga out of power and restored the elected, legitimate president. .

Parties: Plaintiffs and defendants (petitioners and respondents) to lawsuits. This can also be known as appellants and appellees in appeals, and their lawyers.

Partisan: Belonging to a particular party during an election, involving a particular party.

Payment in kind (PiK): A federal program that provided farmers with surplus produce instead of cash payments.

Peace and Freedom Party (PF): A political association founded in 1968 by people active in the farm worker, civil rights and anti-Vietnam war movements. This group nominated Benjamin Spock, author of “Baby and Child Care” for V. President in 1972

Pearl Harbor: An inlet of the Pacific on the south coast of Oahu, Hawaii, west of Honolulu. The Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor during WW11 under the administration of F.D. Roosevelt’s presidency on December 7, 1941. The next day the U.S. declared war on Japan.

Pentagon Papers: A document that included. information on how the U.S. made decisions about the involvement in Vietnam. In 1971, the N.Y. Times and the Washington Post obtained copies of the Pentagon Paper Nixon’s administration went to court to stop the publication in the belief that it would endanger national security. The court decided the government cannot enforce censorship of the press unless national security would be at risk. This case did not come under this category, according to the courts.

Peoples Republic of China (PRC): Created by Mao Tse-tung who took over China in 1949.

Persian Gulf: An arm of the Arabian Sea between Arabia and southwest Iran. The area where President (father) Bush sent troops when Iraq invaded Kuwait after a dispute over a couple of Persian Gulf islands. Kuwait was successfully won back by the allies.

Petit jury (or trial jury): See trial jury.

Perestroika: A Russian term introduced by Mikhail Gorbachev referring to restructuring, and encouraging individual enterprise and decentralization to stimulate Russian economy.

Pigeonholing: A tactic used by legislators to avoid dealing with a measure at any given time; the proposal is put aside for an indefinite time, usually with the intention of killing it.

Plaintiff: The person who files the complaint in a civil lawsuit.

Plea: In a criminal case, the defendant's statement pleading "guilty" or "not guilty" in answer to the charges, a declaration made in open court.

Pleadings: Written statements of the parties in a civil case regarding their positions. In the federal courts, the principal pleadings are the complaint and the answer.

Plessy v. Ferguson: An 1896 Supreme court decision that provided a constitutional justification for segregation by ruling that a Louisiana law requiring “equal but separate accommodations for the white and colored races: was unconstitutional.

Plurality rule: A number of votes received by a candidate that is greater than that received by the other candidates but is less than the majority of the total vote.

Pocket veto: A veto taking place when Congress adjourns within ten days of having submitted a bill to the president, who simply lets it die by neither signing nor vetoing it. See also veto.

Policy: The underlying plan to deal with a political issue, from which flows an interconnected set of laws and administrative rules and procedures to accomplish it.

Political action committee (PAC): special committee set up to handle the collection and spending of money for political campaigns.

Political agenda: A list of items being considered for public resolution

Political culture: A broadly shared set of beliefs about how politics and government should be implemented.

Political executive: Officials who are appointed by and can be removed from office by the president

Political interest groups: Groups who find benefit in organized action to influence political decisions.

Political parties: Organizations designed to select candidate, conduct election campaigns, and, if successful, staff the appointed offices of government.

Pork barrel: Refers to programs, not considered essential, that are added to government spending bills favoring certain districts, states, or groups.

Precedent: A court decision in an earlier case with facts and law similar to a dispute currently before a court. Precedent will ordinarily govern the decision of a later similar case, unless a party can show that it was wrongly decided or that it differed in some significant way.

President: Commander in chief of the armed forces.

Presidential Powers concerning foreign policy. (1). Acting as commander-in chief of the armed forces. (2). grant diplomatic recognition to other countries. (3). receive and send ambassadors. (4). negotiates treaties.

Primary or primary election: Held usually in the spring, around March or April. An election held before a general election for the purpose of nominating a party’s candidate for office.

Procedure: The rules for the conduct of a lawsuit; there are rules of civil, criminal, evidence, bankruptcy, and appellate procedure.

Probation: A sentencing alternative to imprisonment in which the court releases convicted defendants under supervision as long as certain conditions are observed.

Proportional representation: A system where each political party receives seats in a legislative body roughly equal to its proportion of the vote.

Prose: A Latin term meaning "on one's own behalf." In courts, it refers to persons who present their own cases without lawyers.

Prosecute: To charge someone with a crime. A prosecutor tries a criminal case on behalf of the government.

Public goods: See collective goods

Public interest groups: Lobbying groups that would not gain personally from a governmental decision but are seeking to achieve some broader societal goal.

Public opinion polling: A series of questions used to determine the attitudes, knowledge, or opinions of a population.

Quorum: The number of persons who must be present before a group can officially conduct business or enact legislation.

Random sample: A scientifically drawn sample that has a high probability of reflecting the larger group.

Reagan, Ronald: (R) 1911-. The 40^th President of the United States. 1981-1989. Known as the Great Communicator. He was very successful in articulating his policies and served for two terms. (See Contras, Sandinista and the Iran-Contra Affair)

Realignment: A significant change in the underlying support for political parties.

Reapportionment: The redrawing of legislative district boundaries every 10 years to reflect population changes.

Recall: Used to remove elected officials from office. See Recall Election

Recall election: A vote of the people to decide if someone should be removed from and elected position before the end of his or her term; used in many states, but not at the national level, where impeachment is the only recourse.

Recess appointments: Appointments made by the president when the Senate is not in session; unless the Senate confirms them the appointments end on the last day of the next session of Congress.

Reciprocity: Deferring to others’ expertise in order to maintain control over one’s own.

Record: A written account of all the acts and proceedings in a lawsuit.

Referendum: Legislative action that is brought before the voters for their approval. It is a way for voters to veto a law passed by legislation.

Reform Party (Rfm): The 1992 Independent presidential candidacy of Ross Perot calling for deficit reduction and other reforms led to the founding of the Reform Party which nominated him for president in 1996. 2000 nominated Buchanan.

Regents of the University California v. Bakke: See California v. Bakke

Republican Party: G.O. P Stands for Grand Ole Party. Started shortly after the Civil War. From then until Franklin D. Roosevelt’s election, the Republican Party was the main or majority party.

Republic of China: The government created by President Chiang Kai-Shek who fled to Taiwan (Formosa) after the take over of China by the Communist leader Mao Tse-tung. ( See also, Mao Tse-tung, People’s Republic of China and Chiang Kai- Shek).

Representative democracy (republic): Form of government that derives its power directly or indirectly from the people who choose some to make political decisions on behalf of others.

Republic: See Representative democracy

Rehnquist, William (R) Chief justice of the U.S. Supreme court. Appointed by Nixon and made Chief justice by Reagan.

Reserved powers: Powers or rights the states have not specifically assigned or denied. State governments could supervise matters of education, marriage, divorce, inheritance, elections, and bits and pieces of criminal law.

Restrictive rule: Rule in the House of Representatives that limits who can make how many amendments during the consideration of a bill.

Reverse: An appellate court sets aside the decision of a lower court because of an error. A reversal is often followed by a remand.

Riders: See non-germane amendment

Roe v. Wade: The 1973 Supreme Court decision holding that a state ban on all abortions was unconstitutional. The decision forbade state control over abortions during the first trimester of pregnancy, permitted states to limit abortions to protect the mother’s health in the second trimester, and permitted states to protect the fetus during the third trimester..

Roosevelt, Franklin, D: (D) 1882-1945. The 32^nd President of the United States. 1933-1945. America entered WW11 in 1941; he died during the war and President Truman became president. (New Deal)

Roosevelt, Theodore: (R) 1958-1919. The 26^th President of the United States. 1901-1909. 1906 Nobel Peace Prize. (Square deal/New Nationalism)

Rules committee: An important committee in the House that controls access to floor action when and under what conditions bills will be taken from the calendar for consideration.

Safe district: a district whose majority votes are only democratic or only republican. See district and swing district.

Sanctions: Actions designed to prevent individuals or countries from doing something or; having done it, to punish.

Sandinistas: Nicaraguan rebels who over threw the government of Anastasio Somoza.

SALT: Strategic Arms Limitation Talks.

Scalia, Antonin (R): One of the eight associate justices on the U.S. Supreme Court. The first Italian American to be appointed to the court.

SDI: Strategic Defense Initiative (Star Wars)

Secede: To withdraw formally form membership from and organization, association or alliance. Eleven Southern States wanted to secede from the Union creating the Civil War. These States were: Alabama, Arkansas, Tennessee, Texas, Georgia, Florida, Virginia, South Carolina, North Carolina, Louisiana, Mississippi. .

Security Council members: The five permanent members of the Security council for the U.N. are: The United States, the United Kingdom, France, Russia and China.

Seniority: Length of service in Congress, or more importantly, length of service on a particular committee; positions of authority or important chairmanships are assigned to congressmen based on seniority.

Sentence: The punishment ordered by a court for a defendant convicted of a crime.

Separation of powers: A system where power at any one level of government is divided among several institutions or branches, usually executive, legislative, and judicial. This is a form of check and balance.

Serbia: A Republic of Yugoslavia. NATO bombed this Republic because of a crisis in its province, Kosovo. This was the first military action led by NATO in its history.,

Settlement: Parties to a lawsuit resolve their difference without having a trial. Settlements often involve the payment of compensation by one party in satisfaction of the other party's claims.

Shah: The formal title for the monarch of Iran.

Simple majority: Where the winner of an election needs 50 percent plus 1 of the votes cast.

Simple resolutions: Resolutions passed by one house of the Congress, usually dealing with that chamber’s rules or prerogatives.

Single-member districts (SMD’s): Electoral districts from which one legislative member is elected.

Slander: Oral defamation, in which someone tells one or more persons an untruth about another, which untruth will harm the reputation of the person defamed.

Social Security: Health and old-age benefits by the government(This is paid into when the individual is working before retirement)

Somalia: A country of extreme E. Africa on the Gulf of Aden and the Indian Ocean. Somalia’s allegiance goes first to their own tribe, then to the common leader. Their fighting was for control of ports and airports because food distribution depended on these. They received historical acclaim during the Bush (father) administration. Troops were sent to stop clan violence and to move food and supplies to its people. During Clinton’s office, American troops remained in this country. Because of the increase in violence toward them and other UN peacekeepers, Clinton ordered the troops home. Thirty American’s were killed and 175 wounded.

Somoza, Anastasio: Dictator of Nicaragua who had his government topple in 1979 by Marxist Sandinistas. .

Souter, David H. ®: One of the eight associate justices on the U.S. Supreme Court.

Soviet Union: Known as Union of Soviet Socialist Republics: A former country of E. Europe and N. Asia with coastlines on the Baltic and Black seas and the Artic and Pacific oceans.

Speaker of the House: An office mandated by the Constitution. The Speaker is chosen in practice by the majority party, has both formal and informal powers, and is second in line to succeed a presidential vacancy.

Special and select committees: Legislative committees named on an ad hoc basis to consider a particular problem or where special expertise is called for on the part of members; disband after issuing report.

Split ticket: voter who votes for candidates of different parties. (See Straight ticket, loyal party, and crossover voter)

Spoils system: Appointments of supporters to government positions made by those who win the election.

Sputnik: Soviet Satellite launched in 1957 during the reign of Nikita Khrushchev, ruler of the Soviet Union. This prompted the US to improve its education program by passing the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA)

Stalin, Joseph: 1879-1953, Soviet politician Marxist-Leninist dictator. He was replaced by Nikita Khrushchev when Stalin died in 1953.

Standing committees: Separate subject-matter committees in each house of Congress that handle bills in different policy areas. See also joint and conference committees. .

Stare decisis: A Latin phrase meaning “let the decision stand.” The vast majority of cases reaching the courts are settled on this principle.

Star Wars: See Strategic Defense Initiative.

Statute: In the broad sense, any law or rule. More specifically, a statute is a law enacted by legislation. .

Statute of limitations: A law that sets the time within which parties must take action to enforce their rights.

Straight ticket voter: People who vote for all candidates of their party. ( see Loyal party, Split ticket, Straight ticket and Crossover voter)

Strategic arms limitations talks (SALT): Talks between the U.S. and U.S.S.R. to limit the growth of nuclear weapons during the 1970’s.

Strategic arms reduction talks (START): Reagan policy of seeking to reduce the number, rather than limit the further growth, of nuclear weapons. The treaty reducing the number of medium-range missiles in Europe in 1987 was a result of this process.

START II: Negotiated in 1992 between the United States and Russia and signed in 1993, it calls for a two-thirds reduction in nuclear warheads.

Strategic defense initiative (SDI): The proposal of the Reagan administration to build a space-based defensive system against nuclear attack. Also known as Star Wars.

Stevens, John Paul ®: One of the eight associate justices on the U.S. Supreme Court.

Stock market crash: 1929. Millions of Americans lost all the money that they invested in the stock market. May jobs across the country were lost. 1929 was the beginning of a period in history known as the Great Depression.

Subcommittees: Committees that take initial action, including hearings on legislation proposed to the full committee.

Subpoena: An order compelling a witness to appear or produce evidence under penalty of contempt of court for failure to comply.

Subpoena duces tecum: A command to a witness to produce documents.

Subsidy: A government grant of financial support to those who meet the conditions specified in the law

Suffrage: The right to vote.

Summary judgment: A decision made based on statements and evidence presented for the record without a trial. It is used when there is no dispute as to the facts of the case, and one party is entitled to judgment as a matter of law.

Supreme Court: The pinnacle of the American judicial system. The Court ensures uniformity in interpreting national laws, resolves conflicts among states, and maintains national supremacy in law. It has both original jurisdiction and appellate jurisdiction, but it, unlike other federal courts, controls its own agenda.

Swing District: A district, which can be equally in favor of Democrats or Republicans. (See District, and Safe District.)

Tax expenditure: Provision in the tax code that provides for a reduction for tax owed, such as interest paid on one’s principal residence mortgage.

Teller votes: A Method of voting in the House where members pass by tellers or counters who record the member’s position on an issue; since the reforms of 1970, teller votes are recorded electronically and published in the Congressional Record.

Temporary restraining order: Prohibits a person from an action that is likely to cause irreparable harm. This differs from an injunction in that it may be granted immediately, without notice to the opposing party, and without a hearing. It is intended to last only until a hearing can be held.

Testimony: Evidence presented orally by witnesses during trials or before grand juries.

Third World: Developing countries that are not aligned with the Western bloc or the Eastern bloc.

Thomas, Clarence ®: One of the eight associate justices on the U.S. Supreme Court. Clarence is the second African-American to be appointed to the court.

Tiannanmen Square: Area of student demonstrations for democracy in China in 1988. The unspeakable crushing of these students by PLA tanks of the Chinese communist party, influenced Gorbachev, the then leader of the Soviet Union, to relax his view of communism. This helped the breakup of the Soviet Union.

Totalitarian: System of government in which all actions of citizens are subject to government control.

Trial jury: A group of citizens who hear the evidence presented by both sides at trial and determine the facts in dispute. Federal criminal juries have of 12 members. Federal civil juries have of six members.

Tripartite Act: Executed by three parties; the Germans, Japan, and Italy, creating the Tokyo-Berlin-Rome Axis.( See Mussolini, Hitler, and Japan).

Truman, Harry: (Fair Deal) 1884-1972. The 33^rd U.S. President of the United States. (1945-1953) His presidency was during the conflict in Korea. He created what was know as the Fair Deal. It was during Truman’s presidency that atomic bombs were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Japan surrendered within a week. Roosevelt died in 1945 leaving Truman president. U.S. dropped the atomic bomb on Hiroshima and Nagasaki Japan. UNICEF and UNESCO began. Containment, NATO, the Warsaw Pact, Marshall Plan, Communist dictator Mao Tse-tung took over China, The Korean War, The beginning of the Cold War. See also Greece and Turkey.

Truman Doctrine: Policy of President Truman in 1947 that the United States would financially support and use troops to defend countries in Southeastern Europe from communist aggression.

Turkey: A country of S. W. Asian and SE Europe between the Mediterranean and Black Sea. This country sought the policy of containment during Harry Truman’s presidency. ( See Containment, Greece, Truman Doctrine, and Marshall Plan).

Two party system: A political system characterized by two major political groups. See Major Parties.

Uphold: The decision of an appellate court not to reverse a lower court decision.

United Nations: (U.N. or U.N.O, meaning United Nations Organization) Created in 1945, in San Francisco. The Un is composed of a Secretariat, a Security Council of 15 member states, a General Assembly of 179 members (1992), and a number of subsidiary organizations concerned with humanitarian and health issues. Examples are the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) and the World Health Organization (WHO).The United Nations is now located in New York City.

United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF): Formerly known as United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund). An Organization that provides aid and development assistance to children and mothers in developing countries. The headquarters is in New York.

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNECO): An organization that aims to promote collaboration among nations through education, science and culture. The U.S. withdrew from UNESCO in 1985, because of alleged anti-Western bias. The headquarters is in Paris.

U.S. attorney: A lawyer appointed by the President in each judicial district to prosecute and defend cases for the federal government. The US attorney reports to the attorney general, the head of the Department of Justice.

U.S. Constitution: The document written in 1789 by James Madison, sets forth the institutional structure of the U.S. government and the task this institution performs. It replaced the Articles of Confederation. See also constitution.

U.S. v. Nixon: Secret taped conversations in the Oval Office, opening up what we now know as the Watergate scandal. The Washington Post’s investigative reporting had a large part in the opening of this corruption to the public eye. Although Richard Nixon won a second term as President, the break in into the Democratic Party campaign headquarters by high government officials lead to Nixon’s eventual resignation.

Verdict: The decision of a petit jury or a judge.

Veto: The constitutional power of the president to send a bill back to Congress with reasons for rejecting it. A two-thirds vote in each house can override a veto. Ability of a local or federal executive to return a bill to the legislature without signing it--in effect rejecting it. See also pocket veto and legislative veto.

Veto Override: 2/3 vote, both the House and the Senate..

Vietnam: A country in SE Asia in E. Indochina on the South China Sea; divided (1954-1976) into North Vietnam and South Vietnam. Vietnam from Eisenhower through Kennedy: Eisenhower provided military and economic aid to S. Vietnam. John F. Kennedy continued the military and economic aid to S. Vietnam. Nixon and Ford: Nixon was aware of the domestic conflicts concerning U.S. involvement in Vietnam. He negotiated with N. Vietnam withdrawal in exchange for internationally supervised elections. The north refused. Once troops were off Vietnam soil, North Vietnam attacked the South. President Ford asked Congress to send more aid to S. Vietnam. Congress refused. Four month later Vietnam was under communistic control of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam.

Vietnam War: A civil war fought from 1954-1975 to win the freedom for South Vietnam for democracy. America supported this war from Truman through Nixon. Kennedy sent 15,000 troops. The number grew to 23,000 with Johnson at the end of 1964. By 1966, close to 265,000 American soldiers were part of the Vietnam conflict. The war was opposed by the American people Johnson did not want to quit since he would have been the first president to have lost a war. The American public was outraged. (See Gulf of Tonkin)

Vote: A formal expression of one’s opinion or choice under a matter of discussion. See Loyal party voters, Straight ticket voters, split ticket voters and crossover voter.

War crimes: Defined in the following three categories: (1). Crimes against peace: invasions of other countries and wars of aggression in violation of international treaties. (2). War crimes: Atrocities or offenses against persons and property including murder, ill treatment, deportation, slave labor, and devastation not justified by military necessity. (3). Crimes against humanity: Atrocities and offenses including murder, extermination, enslavement, deportation, imprisonment, torture, rape, and persecution on political, racial, or religious grounds.

War powers: The president’s power to engage in war to ensure the security of the nation.

Warrant: A written order directing the arrest of a party. A search warrant orders that a specific location be searched for items, which if found, can be used in court as evidence. Required by the fourth amendment to the US Constitution

Warsaw Pact: A military alliance among the countries of Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union. This alliance was created after the NATO organization was formed in 1945. The Pact fell apart in 1989 with the fall of the Soviet Union.

Washington, George: (Federalist) 1732-1799. American military leader and the first President of the United States.

Washington lawyer: Lawyer and lobbyist who specializes in representing clients before government agencies and who lobbies on their behalf; frequently a former government official.

W.A.S.P.: White Anglo-Saxon Protestant.

Watergate scandal: The specific incident refers to an attempt to bug the headquarters of the Democratic party in the Watergate apartment building in Washington, DC, June 1972. The scandal, however, refers to the range of activities, including the bungled bugging, the attempts to cover it up, and the obstruction of justice that ultimately led to Richard Nixon’s resignation from office and the criminal convictions of a large number of his close associates.

Wesbury v.Sanders: Class action asking that Georgia apportionment statute be declared invalid and that appellees, the Governor and Secretary of State, be enjoined form conducting elections under it. It seems the apportionment of congressional districts was not equal to population, thereby making this apportionment invalid.

West Bank: A disputed territory of SW Asia between Israel and Jordan W of the Jordan R. ; occupied by Israel since 1967.

White collar worker: A worker not engaged in manual labor. Usually a salaried worker.

Witness: A person called upon by either side in a lawsuit to give testimony before the court or jury.

Whips: Party leaders who work with the majority leader to count votes beforehand and lean on those waving the bill on to vote since their votes are crucial to a bill favored by the party.

World War I: 1914-1918. This war began with the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand (Austria-Hungarian)Woodrow Wilson sent American troops to Europe in 1917, the time America became involve in this War on the Allied side. (See Allies and Central Powers)

World War II: 1939-1945: America became involved December 7, 1941 when the Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor.

Writ: A written order issued by a court, commanding the party to whom it is addressed to perform or cease performing a specified act.

Writ of habeas corpus: A legal right that prohibits a person from being unlawfully held in custody. The literal meaning of Habeas corpus is, produce the body, that is a person must appear in court.

Writ of mandamus: A court order forcing action. In the dispute leading to Marbury v. Madison, Marbury and his associates asked the Supreme Court to issue a writ ordering Madison to give them their commissions.

Yeltsin, Boris: The Russian president replacing Mikhail Gorbachev, bringing an end to Communist rule in the country.

Yugoslavia: A country of SE Europe on the Balkan Peninsula comprising Serbia, the larges republic of Yugoslavia with it’s province being Kosovo, and Montenegro; proclaimed in 1992 after four other Yugoslavian constituent republics declared independence. Capital is Belgrade. The main language spoken in Yugoslavia is Serbio-Croatian. The Prominent religion in Yugoslavia is Serbian Orthodox Christianity. This country was a former member of the Warsaw Pact.